Bagan is an ancient city and UNESCO World Heritage Site in Myanmar known as a "sea of temples" for holding the densest concentration of Buddhist monuments in the world.
History and Architecture
Golden Age: Built primarily between the 11th and 13th centuries when Bagan served as the capital of the Pagan Kingdom.
Vast Scale: Rulers and locals constructed over 10,000 religious monuments at its peak; more than 2,000 temples and pagodas still stand today across the plains.
Key Structures: Famous sites include the well-preserved Ananda Temple with its distinct Mon architecture and the massive Dhammayangyi Temple.
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands.
It has a land area of 7, 2,968,464 sq mi), making it the sixth-largest country in the world, and is the world's flattest and driest inhabited continent.
It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates, including deserts in the interior and tropical rainforests along the coast.
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from Southeast Asia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the Last Glacial Period. By the time of British settlement, Aboriginal Australians spoke more than 250 distinct languages and had one of the oldest living cultures in the world.
Australia's culture is diverse, and the country has one of the highest foreign-born populations in the world. It has a highly developed economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally. Its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country's economy. It ranks highly for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights.
At 2,228m (7,310ft), Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the mainland.
The Murray-Darling is the major river system, draining most of inland New South Wales and Southern Queensland towards Lake Alexandrina and the sea in South Australia
Australia's population is concentrated on the coastal fringes. About 95% of the population lives within 100km of the coast; the world average is 39%. Australia's population density is 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometre, which is one of the lowest in the world. However, there is a large concentration of the population in cities along the temperate south-eastern coastline, and population density exceeds 38 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne
Asia is the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.
Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population. Immigrants account for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations.
Mainstream scholars have situated the ethnicity and the origins of predynastic, southern Egypt as a foundational community primarily in northeast Africa which included the Sudan, tropical Africa and the Sahara whilst recognising the population variability that became characteristic of the pharaonic period.[5][6][7][8] Pharaonic Egypt featured a physical gradation across the regional populations, with Upper Egyptians having shared more biological affinities with Sudanese and southernly African populations, whereas Lower Egyptians had closer genetic links with Levantine and Mediterranean populations.[9][10][11]
After the desertification of the Sahara, settlement became concentrated in the Nile Valley, where numerous sacral chiefdoms appeared. The regions with the largest population pressure were in the Nile Delta region of Lower Egypt, in Upper Egypt, and also along the second and third cataracts of the Dongola Reach of the Nile in Nubia.[12] This population pressure and growth was brought about by the cultivation of southwest Asian crops, including wheat and barley, and the raising of sheep, goats, and cattle. Population growth led to competition for farm land and the need to regulate farming. Regulation was established by the formation of bureaucracies among sacral chiefdoms. The first and most powerful of the chiefdoms was Ta-Seti, founded around 3,500 BC. The idea of sacral chiefdom spread throughout Upper and Lower Egypt.[13]
The pyramids of Giza, symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt
Later consolidation of the chiefdoms into broader political entities began to occur in Upper and Lower Egypt, culminating into the unification of Egypt into one political entity by Narmer (Menes) in 3,100 BC. Instead of being viewed as a sacral chief, he became a divine king. The henotheism, or worship of a single god within a polytheistic system, practiced in the sacral chiefdoms along Upper and Lower Egypt, became the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion. Bureaucracies became more centralized under the pharaohs, run by viziers, governors, tax collectors, generals, artists, and technicians. They engaged in tax collecting, organizing of labor for major public works, and building irrigation systems, pyramids, temples, and canals. During the Fourth Dynasty (2,620–2,480 BC), long-distance trade was developed, with the Levant for timber, with Nubia for gold and skins, with Punt for frankincense, and also with the western Libyan territories. For most of the Old Kingdom, Egypt developed her fundamental systems, institutions and culture, always through the central bureaucracy and by the divinity of the Pharaoh.[14]
After the fourth millennium BC, Egypt started to extend direct military and political control over her southern and western neighbors. By 2,200 BC, the Old Kingdom's stability was undermined by rivalry among the governors of the nomes who challenged the power of pharaohs and by invasions of Asiatics into the Nile Delta. The First Intermediate Period had begun, a time of political division and uncertainty.[14]
Middle Kingdom of Egypt arose when Mentuhotep II of Eleventh Dynasty unified Egypt once again between 2041 and 2016 BC beginning with his conquering of Tenth Dynasty in 2041 BC.[15][16] Pyramid building resumed, long-distance trade re-emerged, and the center of power moved from Memphis to Thebes. Connections with the southern regions of Kush, Wawat and Irthet at the second cataract were made stronger. Then came the Second Intermediate Period, with the invasion of the Hyksos on horse-drawn chariots and utilizing bronze weapons, a technology heretofore unseen in Egypt. Horse-drawn chariots soon spread to the west in the inhabitable Sahara and North Africa. The Hyksos failed to hold on to their Egyptian territories and were absorbed by Egyptian society. This eventually led to one of Egypt's most powerful phases, the New Kingdom (1,580–1,080 BC), with the Eighteenth Dynasty. Egypt became a superpower controlling Nubia and Judea while exerting political influence on the Libyans to the West and on the Mediterranean.[14]
To the south, Nubian independence and strength was being reasserted. This reassertion led to the conquest of Egypt by Nubia, begun by Kashta and completed by Piye (Pianhky, 751–730 BC) and Shabaka (716–695 BC). This was the birth of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt. The Nubians tried to re-establish Egyptian traditions and customs. They ruled Egypt for a hundred years. This was ended by an Assyrian invasion, with Taharqa experiencing the full might of Assyrian iron weapons. The Nubian pharaoh Tantamani was the last of the Twenty-fifth dynasty.[14]
When the Assyrians and Nubians left, a new Twenty-sixth Dynasty emerged from Sais. It lasted until 525 BC, when Egypt was invaded by the Persians. Unlike the Assyrians, the Persians stayed. In 332, Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great. This was the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty, which ended with Roman conquest in 30 BC. Pharaonic Egypt had come to an end.[14]
Nubia, situated along the Nile River in what is now southern Egypt and northern Sudan, was home to a series of complex societies and kingdoms that played significant roles in the ancient world.
The earliest known culture in Nubia is the A-Group, flourishing between approximately 3800 and 3100 BCE.[17][18] This culture developed out of Neolithic societies and is recognized for its cemeteries, artifacts, and rock art found between the First and Second Cataracts of the Nile.[17] The A-Group engaged in trade with ancient Egypt, exchanging goods such as gold, copper, and ivory.[18] The term "Ta-Seti," meaning "Land of the Bow," was used by ancient Egyptians to refer to Nubia, highlighting the region's reputation for skilled archers.[19][20] Some scholars associate Ta-Seti with the A-Group culture, though the exact relationship remains a subject of debate.
Around 2500 BCE, the Kingdom of Kerma emerged as a powerful Nubian state centered near the Third Cataract of the Nile.[21] Kerma became a significant rival to Egypt, controlling territory from the Second to the Fourth Cataracts. The city of Kerma featured monumental architecture, including a large mudbrick temple and extensive cemeteries.[21] During the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (circa 1650–1550 BCE), Kerma allied with the Hyksos, who controlled parts of northern Egypt. This alliance posed a substantial threat to the Egyptian state. However, the rise of Egypt's New Kingdom led to military campaigns that eventually subdued Kerma by around 1500 BCE.[21]
Following the decline of Kerma, the Kingdom of Kush rose to prominence, with its initial capital at Napata, near the Fourth Cataract.[22][23] By the 8th century BCE, Kushite kings had extended their influence into Egypt. King Piye (also known as Piankhi) successfully invaded Egypt around 730 BCE, establishing the 25th Dynasty and ruling as Pharaoh.[22][23] The Kushite Dynasty embraced many aspects of Egyptian culture, including religion, art, and architecture. However, their rule in Egypt faced challenges from the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire. In 663 BCE, Assyrian forces led by King Ashurbanipal sacked Thebes, effectively ending Kushite control over Egypt.
After retreating from Egypt, the Kushite kingdom shifted its capital to Meroë, located further south along the Nile. This move marked the beginning of the Meroitic Period, characterized by a distinct Nubian culture that, while influenced by Egypt, developed unique features. Meroë became a center for iron production and trade, with connections extending to the Red Sea and the Mediterranean.[24] The Meroitic script, an indigenous writing system, replaced Egyptian hieroglyphs during this era. The Meroitic religion incorporated Egyptian deities and introduced new ones, such as the lion-headed god Apedemak.[25] Art and architecture from this period display a blend of Egyptian and indigenous Nubian elements.
By the 4th century CE, the Kingdom of Kush faced decline due to internal factors and external pressures. Around 350 CE, King Ezana of Aksum, a rising power in what is now Ethiopia, launched a successful military campaign against Meroë, leading to the fall of the Kushite kingdom.[26][27][28]
The Egyptians referred to the people west of the Nile, ancestral to the Berbers, as Libyans. The Libyans were agriculturalists like the Mauri of Morocco and the Numidians of central and eastern Algeria and Tunis. They were also nomadic, having the horse, and occupied the arid pastures and desert, like the Gaetuli. Berber desert nomads were typically in conflict with Berber coastal agriculturalists.[29]
The Phoenicians were Mediterranean seamen in constant search for valuable metals such as copper, gold, tin, and lead. They began to populate the North African coast with settlements—trading and mixing with the native Berber population. In 814 BC, Phoenicians from Tyre established the city of Carthage.[30] By 600 BC, Carthage had become a major trading entity and power in the Mediterranean, largely through trade with tropical Africa. Carthage's prosperity fostered the growth of the Berber kingdoms, Numidia and Mauretania. Around 500 BC, Carthage provided a strong impetus for trade with Sub-Saharan Africa. Berber middlemen, who had maintained contacts with Sub-Saharan Africa since the desert had desiccated, used pack animals to transfer products from oasis to oasis. Danger lurked from the Garamantes of Fez, who raided caravans. Salt and metal goods were traded for gold, slaves, beads, and ivory.[31]
Ruins of Carthage
The Carthaginians were rivals to the Greeks and Romans. Carthage fought the Punic Wars, three wars with Rome: the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC), over Sicily; the Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC), in which Hannibal invaded Europe; and the Third Punic War (149 to 146 BC). Carthage lost the first two wars, and in the third it was destroyed, becoming the Roman province of Africa, with the Berber Kingdom of Numidia assisting Rome. The Roman province of Africa became a major agricultural supplier of wheat, olives, and olive oil to imperial Rome via exorbitant taxation. Two centuries later, Rome brought the Berber kingdoms of Numidia and Mauretania under its authority. In the 420's AD, Vandals invaded North Africa and Rome lost her territories, subsequently the Berber kingdoms regained their independence.[32]
As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed one of the largest element, with Gauls, of the Carthaginian army.[34]
In the Mercenary War (241-238 BC), a rebellion was instigated by mercenary soldiers of Carthage and African allies.[35] Berber soldiers participated after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. Berbers succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars; in 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged.[36] Two of them were established in Numidia, behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay Mauretania, which extended across the Moulouya River in Morocco to the Atlantic Ocean.[37] The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the Almohads and Almoravid dynasty more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Masinissa in the 2nd century BC.[38] After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the Roman Empire.[39]
